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*Unrevised version of talk at 39^th Annual Meeting of the Political
Economy of the World-System Conference, Berlin, Mar. 2015.*
*NOT TO BE CITED*
**
*"Antisystemic Movements and the Future of Capitalism"*
*by Immanuel Wallerstein*
**
*The antisystemic movements now find themselves in the midst of a fierce
struggle about the future. Let me start by reviewing very briefly my
premises, about which I have written much. I do this in order to analyze
the role and dilemmas of the antisystemic movements in this struggle,
what I now call the Global Left. The modern world-system is a capitalist
world-economy functioning within the framework of an interstate system.
This system has been in existence for some 500 years. It has been a
remarkably successful system in terms of its objective which is the
endless accumulation of capital.*
*However, like all systems from the very largest (the universe) to the
smallest nano-systems, this system is a historical system, and as such
has three phases - its initial coming into being, its long period of
what I call ifs "normal" functioning according to the rules that govern
the system, and its inevitable structural crisis. I contend that the
world-system is now in this third phase, that of structural crisis.*
*
*
*There are several things to note about how the system operated in its
previous “normal” period. It had discernible cyclical rhythms, of which
the two most important were the so-called Kondratieff long waves and the
hegemonic cycles. Each of these rhythms was imperfectly cyclical in the
sense that they followed a consistent pattern of two steps forward
followed by one step back. That is, after its upturn phase of the cycle,
none of the cyclical rhythms returned all the way to where they had been
at the beginning of the upturn, but only to a point somewhat higher. The
downturn took the form more of a stagnation than of a true downturn.*
*To achieve its objectives, each of the two principal rhythms depended
on constructing a quasi-monopoly, which brought great benefits to
certain groups. However, the quasi-monopolies were necessarily limited
in time because they were always self-liquidating.*
*The modern world-system came into its structural crisis for two
reasons. The first is that the three basic costs of capitalist
production - personnel, inputs, and infrastructure - rose slowly but
steadily over time because of the ways in which producers sought to
minimize each of these costs. Their efforts were therefore only
partially realizable. Similarly, the mode of enforcing hegemonic
supremacies also reached structural limits given the absences of new
zones to incorporate into the now global world-system. *
*The costs of capitalist production had been rising steadily as a
percentage of the possible price that could be obtained (effective
demand). The consequence of the mode of operations of these two
imperfect cyclical rhythms was an upward secular trend over 500 years,
moving towards an asymptote. They eventually reached a point where the
costs were so high and effective demand so constrained that it was no
longer possible to accumulate capital, creating a problem for
capitalists themselves. The system had moved so far from a possible
equilibrium that they brought about, in conjunction with the limits of
hegemonic power, the structural crisis of the system. *
*
*
*A structural crisis is not a cyclical downturn, with which it is
regularly confused because of our looseness in using the word "crisis."
It is far more than that. It is the point at which the system can no
longer be brought back to equilibrium and begins to fluctuate wildly.
This can only occur once in the life of a historical system. At the
point when the structural crisis begins, the system bifurcates. For
natural scientists, a bifurcation means that there are two different
solutions to the same equation, something supposedly not normally
possible. In ordinary language, we can say that there has come into
being two possible and quite different outcomes, two paths along which
the system can evolve.*
*In a bifurcation, one is absolutely certain that the system cannot
survive. However, one is equally certain that it is intrinsically
impossible to know which fork of the bifurcation will ultimately prevail
and thereby result in the creation of a new historical system (or
systems). *
*The origins and evolution of the Global Left can best be appreciated if
one understands some major turning-points of the modern world-system. I
start with the French Revolution. Most historians consider that the
French Revolution brought about a fundamental transformation of France
in either its political or economic structures, or both.*
*
*
*I think it did neither of these things. Politically, France had long
been following an uneven trajectory of strengthening the central state.
As Tocqueville showed a long time ago, the result of the French
Revolution was to put this trajectory back on track. Economically, it
did not transform France into a capitalist state, since France had been
part of the capitalist world-economy for two to three centuries already.
As for its supposed abolition of the remnants of feudal law, Marc Bloch
showed that the presumed feudal remnants were still there as late as the
early twentieth century.*
*Rather, in my view the significance of the French Revolution lay in the
cultural transformation of the modern world-system as a whole. The
French Revolution bequeathed to the world-system the tacit worldwide
acceptance of two cultural concepts: the normality of change and the
sovereignty of the people. The combination of the two had very radical
implications. The sovereign people could change the system more or less
as they wished. For the dominant classes, this belief severely
threatened their interests. The immediate problem was how to handle this
new reality. There were three different ways, resulting in the three
fundamental ideologies of the post-1789 world - rightwing conservatism,
centrist liberalism, and leftwing radicalism. Each of these ideologies
was a different way of responding politically to these new beliefs. I
call this array of responses the newly-constructed geoculture of the
modern world-system.*
*
*
*I interpret the world-revolution of 1848 as a critical confrontation of
the three post-1789 ideologies, in which both rightwing Conservatism and
leftist Radicalism were outmaneuvered by centrist Liberalism, which was
able to assert supremacy over the two rival ideologies. *
*The Global Left took a crucial turn in the wake of the severe
repressions it suffered following the world-revolution of 1848. The key
political shift was from relying either on spontaneous rebellions or on
utopian withdrawal (the two principal tactics prior to 1848) to the
creation of organizational and therefore bureaucratic structures to
prepare the base for the long struggle. Such structures began to take
shape only in the 1870s.*
*This dominance of centrist liberalism essentially lasted until the
world-revolution of 1968, whose major consequence was precisely to
liberate both the conservatives and the radicals from their subordinate
status to centrist liberalism. After 1968, they were able to become once
again autonomous ideologies, recreating the original triad. Centrist
liberalism did not disappear but was reduced to being once again simply
one of three competing ideologies.*
*Organizationally what I call the original version of the antisystemic
movements, sometimes called the Old Left, began to be constructed in the
last third of the nineteenth century. These movements took two main
forms: that of social movements, which considered that the basic
struggle was a capitalist struggle between the bourgeoisie and the
proletariat; and that of the national movements, which considered that
the basic struggle was between oppressed peoples and their oppressors. *
*There were parallel debates about strategy that occurred both in the
social and in the nationalist movements. One was whether the movements
should seek state power. There were those who said that the state was
their principal enemy and that therefore they should combat it
permanently and unremittingly. The state could not be reformed. And
there were others who insisted that precisely because the state was
their enemy, they needed to disarm it by taking it over. In social
movements, this was the difference between the Anarchists and the
Marxists. In national movements this was the difference between the
cultural and political nationalists.*
*
*
*The second great debate was over the relation between what each
considered to be the primary historical actor (the proletariat for the
social movements, the oppressed people for the national movements) and
all other movements. There were those who insisted that the victory of
the primary actor had to take precedence over the realization of any
other demand. Feminist movements, movements of social minorities, peace
movements, environmentalist movements all were told to subordinate their
actions and demands to those of the primary actor. Otherwise, it was
argued they were acting objectively counter-revolutionary. We call this
view verticalism. And there were those who insisted that the demands of
other groups for their rights could not wait on the victorious
"revolution" of the self-styled primary movements. We call this
horizontalism.*
*In the case of both the social and the national movements, the statist,
verticalist strategy won out in a formula we came to call the two-step
strategy - first obtain state power, then transform the world. This
strategy failed in 1968 precisely because it had succeeded in the
preceding twenty-five years. The revolutionaries of 1968 (what the
French called the /soixante-huitards/) were responding to what they saw
as several realities. The first was the pervasive imperialist role of
the hegemonic power, and what the revolutionaries defined as the
collusion thereto of the Soviet Union (the Yalta tacit deal). The second
was the failure of the movements, having realized step one of the
two-step strategy, to implement the second step and change the world in
any significant way. The third was the limitations and misdeeds of a
verticalist strategy from the perspective of other movements.*
*
*
*The world-revolution of 1968 came within a particular historical
context, that of the acme of the operation of the modern world-system.
This was the period running more or less from 1945 to 1970. This period
saw the highest historical level of accumulation as well as the most
extensive and powerful degree of hegemonic control of the system that
had ever been known. It was precisely the fact that the modern
world-system worked so well in this period in terms of its objectives
that pushed the system too close to the asymptotes and brought on the
structural crisis of the world-system. *
*Initially after 1968, it was the Global Right that was able to take
most advantage of the post-1968 situation. These took the form of the
so-called Washington Consensus that imposed on virtually all governments
a series of measures that undid the so-called developmentalist thrusts
of an earlier period. It would not be until 1994 that the Global Left
could resume its initiatives. There three successive moments of this
reawakening of the Global Left: the Zapatista uprising in Chiapas in
1994; the ability of the demonstrators at the meeting of the World Trade
Organization (WTO) in Seattle in 1999 to scuttle the proposed new world
treaty guaranteeing so-called intellectual property rights; and the
founding of the World Social Forum in Porto Alegre in 2001.*
*What then are the useful and possible strategies of the Global Left
during the remaining 20-40 years of the structural crisis of our present
system? To do that, I need to remind you of the reasons why the classic
two-step strategy failed.*
*The very belief in the inevitability of progress was substantively
depoliticizing, and particularly depoliticizing once an antisystemic
movement came to state power. After 1968, the Global Left espoused a
sort of anti-statism. This popular shift to anti-statism, hailed though
it was by the celebrants of the capitalist system, did not really serve
the interests of the latter. For in actuality anti-statism served to
delegitimize all state structures, even if it was thought to apply
merely to certain particular regimes. It thus undermined (rather than
reinforced) the political stability of the world-system, and thereby
has been making more acute its systemic crisis.*
*
*
*The politics of the transition are different from the politics of the
period of normal operation of the world-system. It is the politics of
grabbing advantage and position at a moment in time when politically
anything is possible and when most actors find it extremely difficult to
formulate middle-range strategies. Ideological and analytic confusion
becomes a structural reality rather than an accidental variable. The
economics of everyday life is subject to wilder swings than those to
which the world had been accustomed and for which there had been easy
explanations. Above all, the social fabric seems less reliable and the
institutions on which we rely to guarantee our immediate security seem
to be faltering seriously. Thus, antisocial crime as well as so-called
terrorism seems to be widespread and this perception creates high level
of fear. One widespread reflex to increased fear is the expansion of
privatized security measures staffed by non-state hired forces.*
*The Global Right are a complex mix and do not constitute a single
organized caucus. The majority of those who identify with them will
share in the general confusion and will resort to their traditional
short-run politics, perhaps with a higher dose of repressiveness
insofar as the politics of concessions will not be seen as achieving the
short-run calm it is supposed to produce.*
*
*
*But there is also the small minority among the upper strata who are
sufficiently insightful and intelligent to perceive the fact that the
present system is collapsing and who wish to ensure that any new system
be one that preserves their privileged position. They probably can be
divided into two main groups advocating two possible alternative
strategies. One is fierce repression and one is the de Lampedusa
strategy - to change everything in order that nothing change. Both
sub-groups have firm resolve and a great deal of resources at their
command. They can hire intelligence and skill, more or less as they
wish. They have in fact already been doing so.*
*I do not know what the de Lampedusa faction will come up with, or by
what means they will seek to implement the form of transition they will
favor. I do know that, whatever it is, it will seem attractive and be
deceptive and is far more dangerous to the Global Left that the
advocates of repression. The most deceptive aspect is that such
proposals will be clothed as radical, progressive change. It will
require constantly applied analytic criticism to bring to the surface
what the real consequences would be, and to distinguish and weigh the
positive and negative elements of the measures they propose.*
*The Global Left who wish to move in the direction of a relatively
democratic, relatively egalitarian system necessarily act within the
framework of an uncertain outcome. This is not easy. There is no
bandwagon to climb aboard. There is only a harsh struggle. *
*
*
*Pre-1968 left analysis involved multiple biases that had pushed it the
Global Left towards a state-orientation. The first bias was that
homogeneity was somehow better than heterogeneity, and that therefore
centralization was somehow better than decentralization. This bias
derived from the false assumption that equality means identity. To be
sure, many thinkers had pointed out the fallacy of this equation,
including Marx, who distinguished equity from equality. But for
revolutionaries in a hurry, even those who claimed to be Marxist, the
centralizing, homogenizing path seemed easiest and fastest. It
required no difficult calculation of how to balance complex sets of
choices. They were arguing in effect that one cannot add apples and
oranges. The only problem is that the real world is precisely made up of
apples and oranges. If you can't do such fuzzy arithmetic, you can't
make real political choices.*
*The second bias was virtually the opposite. Whereas the preference for
unification of effort and result should have pushed logically towards
the creation of a single world movement and the advocacy of a world
state, the de facto reality of a multi-state system, in which some
states were visibly more powerful and privileged than other states,
pushed the movements towards seeing the state in which they lived as a
mechanism of defense of collective interests within the world-system, an
instrument more relevant for the large majority within each state than
for the privileged few. Once again, many thinkers had pointed to the
fallacy of believing that any state within the modern world-system
would or could serve collective interests rather than those of the
privileged few, but weak majorities in weak states could see no other
weapon at hand in their struggles against marginalization and
oppression than a state structure they thought (or rather they hoped)
they might be able to control themselves.*
*
*
*The third bias was the most curious of all. The French Revolution had
proclaimed as its slogan the trinity: "Liberty, Equality, Fraternity."
What has in practice happened ever since is that most people have
tacitly dropped the "fraternity" part of the slogan on the grounds that
it was mere sentimentality. And the liberal center has insisted that
"liberty" had to take priority over "equality." In fact, what the
liberals really meant is that "liberty" (defined in purely political
terms as a multi-party parliamentary system) was the only thing that
mattered and that "equality" represented a danger for "liberty" and had
to be downplayed or dropped altogether. *
*There was flimflam in this analysis, and the Global Left fell for it,
in particular its Leninist variant, which responded to this centrist
liberal discourse by inverting it, and insisting that (economic)
equality had to take precedence over (political) liberty. This was
entirely the wrong answer. The correct answer is that there is no way
whatsoever to separate liberty from equality. No one can be "free" to
choose politically, if one's choices are constrained by an unequal
position. And no one can be "equal" economically if one does not have
the degree of political freedom that others have, that is, does not
enjoy the same political rights and the same degree of participation in
real decisions.*
*Still this is all water under the bridge. The errors of the left, the
failed strategy, were an almost inevitable outcome of the operations of
the capitalist system against which the Global Left was struggling. And
the widespread recognition of this historic failure of the Global Left
is part and parcel of the disarray caused by the general crisis of the
capitalist world-system. *
*
*
*What is it however that the Global Left should push? I think there are
three major lines of theory and praxis to emphasize. The first is what I
call "forcing liberals to be liberals." The Achilles heel of centrist
liberals is that they don't want to implement their own rhetoric. One
centerpiece of their rhetoric is individual choice. Yet at many
elementary levels, liberals oppose individual choice. One of the most
obvious and the most important is the right to choose where to live.
Immigration controls are anti-liberal. Making choices - say choice of
doctor or school - dependent on wealth is anti-liberal. Patents are
anti-liberal. One could go on. The fact is that the capitalist
world-economy has survived on the basis of the non-fulfillment of
liberal rhetoric. The Global Left should be systematically, regularly,
and continuously calling the bluff of centrist liberals.*
*
*
*But of course, calling the rhetorical bluff is only the beginning of
reconstruction. We need to have a positive program of our own. There has
been a veritable sea-change in the programs of left parties and
movements around the world between as late as the 1960s and today. In
the 1960s, the programs of Old Left movements emphasized economic
structures. They advocated one form or another, one degree or another,
of the socialization, usually the nationalization, of the means of
production. They said little, if anything, about inequalities that were
not defined as class-based. Today, almost all of these same parties and
movements, or their successors, put forward proposals to deal with
inequalities of gender, race, and ethnicity. Many of these programs are
terribly inadequate, but at least the movements feel it necessary to
say something. On the other hand, there is virtually no party or
movement today that considers itself on the left that advocates further
socialization or nationalization of the means of production, and a
goodly number that are actually proposing moving in the other
direction. It is a breathtaking turnabout. Some hail it, some denounce
it. Most just accept it.*
*In the period since 1968, there has been an enormous amount of testing
of alternative strategies by different movements, old and new, and there
has been in addition a rather healthy shift in the relations of
antisystemic movements to each other in the sense that the murderous
mutual denunciations and vicious struggles of yesteryear have
considerably abated, a positive development we have been
underestimating. I would like to suggest some lines along which we could
develop further the idea of an alternative strategy.*
**
*(1) /Expand the spirit of Porto Alegre/. What is this spirit? I would
define it as follows. It is the coming together in a non-hierarchical
fashion of the world family of antisystemic movements to push for (a)
intellectual clarity, (b) militant actions based on popular mobilization
that can be seen as immediately useful in people's lives, (c)
simultaneously argue for longer-run, more fundamental changes.*
*
*
*There are three crucial elements to the spirit of Porto Alegre. It is a
loose structure that has brought together on a world scale movements
from the South and the North, and on more than a merely token basis. It
is militant, both intellectually and politically. Intellectually, it is
not in search of a global consensus with the spirit of Davos. And
politically, it is militant in the sense that the movements of 1968 were
militant. Of course, we shall have to see whether a loosely-structured
world movement can hold together in any meaningful sense, and by what
means it can develop the tactics of the struggle. But its very
looseness makes it a force difficult to suppress, while encouraging
centrist forces to be neutral, if hesitantly.*
**
*(2) /Use defensive electoral tactics/. If the Global Left commits
itself to loosely-structured, extra-parliamentary militant tactics, this
immediately raises the question of our attitude towards electoral
processes. Scylla and Charybdis are thinking that they're crucial and
thinking that they're irrelevant. Electoral victories will not
transform the world; but they cannot be neglected. They are an essential
mechanism of protecting the immediate needs of the world's
populations against losses of achieved benefits. The electoral battles
must be fought in order to minimize the damage that can be inflicted by
the Global Right via control of the world's governments.*
*
*
*We cannot neglect such battles because all of us live and survive in
the present and no movement can tell people that short-term survival is
unimportant. This makes, however, electoral tactics a purely pragmatic
matter. Once we don't think of obtaining state power as a mode of
transforming the world, they are always a matter of opting for the
lesser evil, and the decision of what is the lesser evil has to be made
case by case and moment by moment.*
*The choice depends in part on what is the electoral system. A system
with winner-takes-all must be manipulated differently than a system with
two rounds or a system with proportional representation. In addition,
there are many different party and sub-party traditions amongst the
Global Left. Most of these traditions are relics of another era, but
many people still vote according to them.*
*Since state elections are a pragmatic matter, it is crucial to create
alliances that respect these traditions, aiming for the 51% that counts
pragmatically. But no dancing in the streets, when we win! Electoral
victory is merely a defensive tactic.*
**
*(3) /Push democratization unceasingly/. For at least two centuries,
what left movements and ordinary people have most loudly demanded of the
states can be resumed in one word “more” - more education, more health,
more guaranteed lifetime income. This is not only popular; it is
immediately useful in people's lives. And it tightens the squeeze on
the possibilities of the endless accumulation of capital. These demands
should be pushed continuously, and everywhere. There cannot be too much.*
*To be sure, expanding all these "welfare state" functions always
raises questions of efficiency of expenditures, of corruption, of
creating over-powerful and unresponsive bureaucracies. These are all
questions we should be ready to address, but they should never lessen
the basic demand of more, much more.*
*It is crucial that popular movements not spare the center or
left-of-center governments they have elected from the pursuit of these
demands. Just because it is a friendlier government than an outright
right government does not mean that we should pull our punches. Pressing
friendly governments pushes rightwing opposition forces towards the
center-left. Not pushing them pushes center-left governments towards the
center-right.While there may be occasional special circumstances to
obviate these truisms, the general rule on democratization is more,
much more.*
**
*
*
*4) /Make the liberal center fulfil its theoretical preferences/. This
is otherwise known as forcing the pace of liberalism. The liberal
center notably seldom means what it says, or practices what it preaches.
Take some obvious themes, say, liberty. The liberal center used to
denounce the Soviet Union. regularly because it didn't permit free
emigration. But of course the other side of free emigration is free
immigration. There's no value in being allowed to leave a country unless
you can get in somewhere else. We should push for open frontiers.*
*The liberal center regularly calls for freer trade, freer enterprise,
keeping the government out of the market decisions that entrepreneurs
are making. The other side of that is that entrepreneurs who fail in the
market should not be salvaged. They take the profits when they succeed;
they should take the losses when they fail. It is often argued that
saving the companies is saving jobs. But there are far cheaper ways of
saving jobs - pay for unemployment insurance, retraining, and even
starting job opportunities. But none of this needs involve assuming the
debts of the failing entrepreneurs.*
*The liberal center regularly insists that monopoly is a bad thing. But
the other side of that is abolishing or grossly limiting patents. The
other side of that is not involving the government in protecting
industries against foreign competition. Will this hurt the working
classes in the core zones? Well, not if money and energy is spent on
trying to achieve greater convergence of world wage rates.*
*
*
*The details of the proposition are complex and need to be discussed.
The point however is not to let the liberal center get away with its
rhetoric and reaping the rewards of that, while not paying the costs of
its proposals. Furthermore, the most effective political mode of
neutralizing centrist opinion is to appeal to its ideals, not its
interests. Calling the claims on the rhetoric is a way of appealing to
the ideals rather than the interests of the centrist elements.*
*Finally, we should always bear in mind that a good deal of the benefits
of democratization are not easily available to the poorest strata, or
not available to the same degree, because of the difficulties they have
in navigating the bureaucratic hurdles. Some thirty years ago, Cloward
and Piven proposed a mode of aiding the poorest strata. They said we
should "explode the rolls," that is, mobilize in the poorest
communities so that they take full advantage of their legal
rights.^*^[1] * <#_ftn1> *
**
*
*
*5) /Make anti-racism the defining measure of democracy/. Democracy is
about treating all people equally - in terms of power, in terms of
distribution, in terms of opportunity for personal fulfillment. Racism
is the primary mode of distinguishing between those who have rights (or
more rights) and the others who have no rights or fewer rights. Racism
both defines the groups and simultaneously offers a specious
justification for the practice. Racism is not a secondary issue, either
on a national or a world scale. It is the mode by which the liberal
center's promise of universalistic criteria is systematically,
deliberately, and constantly undermined.*
*Racism is pervasive throughout the existing world-system. No corner of
the globe is without it, and without it as a central feature of local,
national, and world politics. In her speech to the Mexican National
Assembly on Mar. 29, Commandant Esther of the EZLN said:*
*The Whites (/ladinos/) and the rich people make fun of us indigenous
women for our clothing, for our speech, for our language, for our way of
praying and healing, and for our color. which is the color of the earth
that we work.^*^[2] * <#_ftn2>__*
*__*
*She went on to plead in favor of the law that would guarantee *
*autonomy to the indigenous peoples, saying:*
*When the rights and the culture of the indigenous peoples are
recognized,...the law will begin to bring together its hour and the hour
of the indigenous peoples.... And if today we are indigenous women,
tomorrow we will the others, men and women, who are dead, persecuted, or
imprisoned because of their difference.*
**
**
*
*
*6) /Move towards decommodification/. The crucial thing wrong with the
capitalist system is not private ownership, which is simply a means, but
commodification which is the essential element in the accumulation of
capital. Even today, the capitalist world-system is not entirely
commodified, although there are efforts to make it so. But we could in
fact move in the other direction. Instead of transforming universities
and hospitals (whether state-owned or private) into profit-making
institutions, we should be thinking of how we can transform steel
factories into non-profit institutions, that is, self-sustaining
structures that pay dividends to no one. This is the face of a more
hopeful future, and in fact could start now.*
**
*7) /Remember always that we are living in the era of transition from
our existing world-system to something different/. This means several
things. We should not be taken in by the rhetoric of globalization or
the inferences about TINA. Not only do alternatives exist, but the only
alternative that doesn't exist is continuing with our present structures. *
*There will be an immense struggle over the successor system, which
shall continue for 20-40 years, and whose outcome is intrinsically
uncertain. History is on no one's side. It depends on what we do. On the
other hand, this offers a great opportunity for creative action. During
the normal life of an historical system, even great efforts at
transformation (so-called "revolutions") have limited consequences since
the system creates great pressures to return to its equilibrium. But in
the chaotic ambiance of a structural transition, fluctuations become
wild, and even small pushes can have great consequences in favoring one
branch or the other of the bifurcation. If ever agency operates, this is
the moment.*
*
*
*The key problem is not organization, however important that be. The key
problem is lucidity. The forces who wish to change the system so that
nothing changes, so that we have a different system that is equally or
even more hierarchical and polarizing, have money, energy, and
intelligence at their disposal. They will dress up the fake changes in
attractive clothing. And only careful analysis will keep us from falling
into their many traps.*
*They will use slogans we cannot disagree with - say, human rights. But
they will give it content which includes a few elements that are highly
desirable with many others that perpetuate the “civilizing mission” of
the powerful and privileged over the non-civilized others. If an
international judicial procedure against genocide is desirable, then it
desirable only if it is applicable to everyone, not merely the weak. If
nuclear weapons, or biological warfare, are dangerous, even barbaric,
then there are no safe possessors of such weapons.*
*
*
*In the inherent uncertainty of the world, at its moments of historic
transformation, the only plausible strategy for the Global Left is one
of intelligent, militant pursuit of its basic objective - the
achievement of a relatively democratic, relatively egalitarian world.
Such a world is possible. It is by no means certain that it will come
into being. But then it is by no means impossible.*
------------------------------------------------------------------------
<#_ftnref1>Richard Cloward & Frances Fox Piven,/Regulating the Poor: The
Functions of Public Welfare/, New York, Pantheon, 1971, p. 348.
^^[2] <#_ftnref2><<a href="http://www.ezln.org/marcha/20010320.htm">http://www.ezln.org/marcha/20010320.htm</a>>
---
L'absence de virus dans ce courrier électronique a été vérifiée par le logiciel antivirus Avast.
<a href="http://www.avast.com/">http://www.avast.com</a>
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